Nepal's Social Media Bill 2025: Comprehensive Analysis of Digital Regulation and Its Implications

Introduction

Nepal's digital landscape is undergoing a significant transformation with the introduction of the Social Media Bill 2025 (officially known as the "Bill on the Operation, Use, and Regulation of Social Media" or Social Media Bill 2081 in the Nepali calendar). Tabled in the National Assembly in early 2025, this landmark legislation aims to establish a comprehensive regulatory framework for social media platforms operating in Nepal, marking a pivotal moment in the country's approach to digital governance.

As Nepal continues to embrace digital transformation, with millions of citizens relying on social media platforms for communication, information sharing, and economic activities, the need for balanced regulation has become increasingly apparent. The Social Media Bill 2025 represents the government's attempt to address challenges related to misinformation, online harms, and digital rights protection while ensuring that social media platforms operate responsibly within Nepal's jurisdiction.

This comprehensive analysis examines the key provisions of Nepal's Social Media Bill 2025, its implications for digital rights and freedom of expression, and how it aligns with international human rights standards. Whether you're a digital rights advocate, social media user, business operating online platforms, or simply interested in Nepal's evolving digital policy landscape, understanding this legislation is crucial for navigating the future of digital communication in Nepal.

Understanding Nepal's Social Media Bill 2025: Context and Objectives

The Social Media Bill 2025 emerges against the backdrop of Nepal's democratic transition, anchored in the 2015 Constitution which enshrines fundamental rights such as freedom of expression, access to information, and privacy. As digital platforms have become integral to Nepal's social, political, and economic fabric, the government has recognized the need to establish clear regulatory guidelines to govern their operation.

Historical Context and Development

Nepal's journey toward social media regulation reflects global trends while being uniquely shaped by local circumstances. The bill was introduced in the National Assembly on February 9, 2025, following extensive consultations with various stakeholders, including digital rights organizations, platform representatives, and legal experts. According to UNESCO, which conducted an official review of the legislation at the request of Nepal's Federal Parliament Secretariat, the bill aims to "address grievances of individuals affected by the misuse of social media and to ensure the proper regulation and use of social media platforms."

Primary Objectives of the Legislation

The Social Media Bill 2025 seeks to achieve several key objectives:

1. Establishing Regulatory Oversight: Creating a formal licensing system for social media platforms operating in Nepal
2. Protecting Users: Safeguarding citizens from online harms including hate speech, misinformation, and privacy violations
3. Ensuring Accountability: Holding platforms responsible for content moderation and user protection
4. Balancing Rights: Attempting to balance freedom of expression with the need to prevent digital harms
5. Aligning with International Standards: Harmonizing Nepal's digital regulations with global best practices (though this remains contested)

Scope and Application

The bill defines "social media" as "any system that enables interactive communication or dissemination of content between and among individuals, groups, or institutions through electronic technologies and devices, including computers, computer networks, and the internet." Similarly, a "platform" is defined as "an application, website, blog, AI tools, or other similar publicly accessible social media platform created in cyberspace through electronic technology, designed to enable interaction or exchange of thoughts or information among internet users."

These broad definitions encompass major international platforms such as Facebook, TikTok, YouTube, and X (formerly Twitter), as well as domestic platforms and emerging technologies including AI-powered tools.

Key Provisions of Nepal's Social Media Bill 2025

The Social Media Bill 2025 introduces several significant provisions that will reshape how social media platforms operate in Nepal. Understanding these key elements is essential for grasping the full scope and impact of the legislation.

Licensing and Registration Requirements

One of the most significant aspects of the Social Media Bill 2025 is the introduction of a mandatory licensing system for social media platforms operating in Nepal. This provision applies equally to platforms operated from within Nepal and those based outside the country but serving Nepali users.

Application Process and Documentation

Companies seeking to operate social media platforms in Nepal must obtain a license from the Department of Information Technology. The application process requires submission of extensive documentation, including:

• Copy of registration certificate of the company, firm, or institution
• Copy of Memorandum and Articles of Association (if applicable)
• Copy of PAN certificate
• Shareholder information
• Details of foreign investment (if applicable)
• Updated company records
• Details of board of directors or governing body
• Board resolution approving the license application
• Authority letter for application submission
• Citizenship or passport copy of authorized representative
• Privacy policy, data use and security policies of the platform
• User content moderation standards applied by the platform
• Identity documents of local representative (for foreign platforms)
• Any other documents as specified by the Department of Information Technology

License Validity and Renewal

Once granted, a platform operation license remains valid for a period of two years. To ensure continuity of operation, license holders must submit renewal applications at least 15 days prior to expiration. Renewal applications require:

• Report on security mechanisms used in the platform
• Summary of complaints and resolution from the past fiscal year
• Details of corporate social responsibility initiatives
• Tax clearance certificate
• Annual report of major activities conducted via the platform

Failure to renew within the specified timeframe results in automatic revocation of the license, effectively barring the platform from operating in Nepal.

Local Representation and Contact Points

The Social Media Bill 2025 requires foreign social media platforms to designate a Nepal-based contact point within three months of the law's commencement. This local entity serves as the primary point of contact for:

• Grievance handling and user complaints
• Official correspondence with government authorities
• Compliance monitoring and reporting
• Legal notices and enforcement actions

This provision aims to ensure that foreign platforms have tangible presence and accountability within Nepal's jurisdiction, addressing concerns about the extraterritorial application of Nepali laws.

Content Moderation and Grievance Redressal Mechanisms

The bill establishes comprehensive requirements for content moderation and user grievance handling:

Mandatory Grievance Redressal Systems

All licensed platforms must establish robust grievance redressal mechanisms, including:

• Rapid response teams for handling user complaints
• 24/7 complaint handling officers
• Systems for monitoring adherence to self-regulation standards
• Public disclosure of changes in contact persons or complaint officers
• Clear procedures for addressing different types of complaints

Content Moderation Standards

Platforms are required to implement and maintain content moderation standards that:

• Prevent dissemination of harmful, hateful, or illegal content
• Align with Nepali laws and cultural values
• Provide transparency about moderation decisions
• Include mechanisms for appealing content removal decisions

User Verification and Identity Requirements

A particularly significant provision of the Social Media Bill 2025 is the requirement for user identity verification. The bill explicitly states that platforms must "ensure identity verification of users (no anonymous use)." This marks a substantial shift from current practices where many platforms allow anonymous or pseudonymous accounts.

The implications of this provision are far-reaching:

• Impact on Whistleblowers and Activists: Those who rely on anonymity for safety may face increased risks
• Privacy Concerns: Mandatory verification raises questions about data protection and surveillance
• Accessibility Issues: May create barriers for users without official identification documents
• Platform Implementation Challenges: Social media companies will need to develop verification systems suitable for the Nepali context

Compliance Obligations and Penalties Under Nepal's Social Media Bill

The Social Media Bill 2025 establishes a comprehensive framework of compliance obligations for both platforms and users, backed by significant penalties for violations. Understanding these requirements is crucial for anyone operating or using social media in Nepal.

Platform Compliance Obligations

Licensed social media platforms operating in Nepal must adhere to several key compliance requirements:

Content and User Management

Platforms are obligated to:

• Prevent dissemination of harmful, hateful, or illegal content
• Protect user data and privacy, except as required by law
• Raise awareness on digital safety and media literacy
• Ensure identity verification of users (eliminating anonymous accounts)
• Establish banking-based payment systems for transactions
• Cooperate with investigations by providing user data when legally required

Transparency and Reporting

The bill requires platforms to maintain transparency through:

• Regular reporting on security mechanisms
• Documentation of complaint resolution processes
• Disclosure of content moderation standards and practices
• Public reporting on major activities and initiatives

Financial and Operational Requirements

Platforms must also comply with:

• Tax obligations and clearance certificates
• Corporate social responsibility initiatives
• Annual activity reporting
• Maintenance of local presence and contact points

Penalties for Platform Violations

Non-compliance with the Social Media Bill 2025 can result in substantial penalties for platforms:

• Operating without a license: Fine up to NPR 2,500,000 (approximately $18,750 USD)
• General non-compliance: Fines ranging from NPR 2.5 million to NPR 10 million (approximately $18,750 to $75,000 USD)
• License violations: Potential cancellation of operating license
• Failure to appoint local contact point: License cancellation and additional penalties

User Obligations and Prohibited Conduct

The bill also establishes specific obligations and prohibitions for social media users in Nepal:

Prohibited User Activities

Users must abstain from:

• Using abusive, defamatory, or hateful speech
• Disseminating false, misleading, or distorted information
• Advertising or engaging in activities prohibited by law
• Sharing or copying illegal content
• Promoting superstition or content harmful to public health
• Creating or using accounts under false or hidden identities
• Creating fake pages/accounts to mislead or harm national security

Penalties for User Violations

The Social Media Bill 2025 establishes a tiered penalty system for user violations:

Financial Penalties

• Abusive or hateful speech: Fine up to NPR 500,000 (approximately $3,750 USD)
• Online harassment: Fine up to NPR 300,000 (approximately $2,250 USD)
• Unauthorized access to accounts or personal data: Fine up to NPR 1.5 million (approximately $11,250 USD)
• Coercion or blackmail via social media: Fine up to NPR 1.5 million (approximately $11,250 USD)
• Sharing obscene content: Fine up to NPR 50,000 (approximately $375 USD)
• Creating or distributing deepfake content: Fine up to NPR 300,000 (approximately $2,250 USD)

Imprisonment Penalties

• Activities threatening national integrity: Up to 5 years in prison
• Online harassment: Up to 2 years in prison
• Causing fear or distress through unwanted digital attention: Up to 3 years in prison
• Unauthorized access to accounts or personal data: Up to 3 years in prison
• Coercion or blackmail via social media: Up to 3 years in prison
• Sharing obscene content: Up to 3 months in prison
• Creating or distributing deepfake content: Up to 2 years in prison
• Creating fake accounts to harm national security: Up to 5 years in prison

Enhanced Penalties

The bill includes provisions for enhanced penalties in specific circumstances:

• Repeat offenders: Face double penalties
• Public officials or those benefiting from public funds: Face 50% increased penalties
• Using children in violations: Extra 1-year prison term

Regulatory Framework and Enforcement Authorities

The Social Media Bill 2025 establishes a multi-agency regulatory framework to oversee implementation and enforcement. Understanding this structure is essential for grasping how the legislation will be applied in practice.

Primary Regulatory Authorities

The bill designates several government bodies as responsible for different aspects of implementation:

Nepal Telecommunications Authority (NTA)

The NTA plays a crucial role in enforcement, particularly regarding:

• Directing internet service providers to block access to unlicensed platforms
• Monitoring compliance with technical requirements
• Coordinating with international platforms on technical standards
• Implementing blocking orders when required

Department of Information Technology

As the primary licensing authority, the Department of Information Technology is responsible for:

• Processing license applications and renewals
• Maintaining the registry of licensed platforms
• Monitoring compliance with licensing conditions
• Imposing penalties for licensing violations
• Developing guidelines and standards for platform operation

Nepal Police

The Nepal Police are tasked with:

• Investigating criminal violations of the bill
• Enforcing penalties related to illegal content and activities
• Coordinating with platforms on law enforcement requests
• Maintaining public order related to social media activities

Press Council Nepal

The Press Council Nepal's role includes:

• Overseeing content regulation aspects
• Developing guidelines for acceptable content
• Handling complaints related to media and content
• Providing recommendations on content regulation policies

Coordination and Oversight Mechanisms

The bill establishes several mechanisms to ensure coordination between different authorities:

Inter-Agency Coordination Committee

A multi-agency committee will be formed to:

• Coordinate enforcement activities across different authorities
• Develop consistent implementation guidelines
• Address jurisdictional overlaps and conflicts
• Provide regular reports on implementation status

Public-Private Consultation Framework

The legislation provides for consultation mechanisms with:

• Social media platform representatives
• Digital rights organizations
• Civil society groups
• Industry associations
• Academic and research institutions

International Cooperation and Alignment

The Social Media Bill 2025 includes provisions for international cooperation on:

• Cross-border enforcement challenges
• Harmonization with global standards
• Information sharing with other regulatory authorities
• Participation in international forums on digital regulation

Digital Rights and Freedom of Expression: Critical Analysis

While the Social Media Bill 2025 aims to address legitimate concerns about online harms, its implications for digital rights and freedom of expression have raised significant concerns among human rights experts and digital rights advocates. This section examines these critical issues through the lens of international human rights standards.

International Human Rights Framework

Nepal's approach to social media regulation must be understood within the context of international human rights law, particularly:

Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

As a state party to the ICCPR, Nepal is bound by Article 19, which protects:

• The right to hold opinions without interference
• The right to freedom of expression, including freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas
• The principle that any restrictions must meet the three-part test: provided by law, necessary for specific legitimate aims, and proportionate

The Three-Part Test for Restrictions on Freedom of Expression

International human rights law establishes that restrictions on freedom of expression must:

1. Be provided by law: Restrictions must be previously established in law, in an express, restricted, and clear manner, giving legal certainty to citizens
2. Pursue legitimate aims: Restrictions must protect the rights of others, national security, public order, public health, or morals
3. Be necessary and proportionate: Restrictions must be the least restrictive means to achieve the legitimate objective and appropriate in a democratic society

UNESCO's Assessment of the Social Media Bill

UNESCO conducted an official review of Nepal's Social Media Bill 2081 at the request of the Federal Parliament Secretariat. Their analysis identified several areas where the bill may not align with international human rights standards:

Concerns About Licensing Requirements

UNESCO's legal analysis found that:

• The licensing system constitutes "prior restraint" and fails to meet the three-part test
• The criteria for license granting, renewal, and revocation are "extremely vague and open to interpretation"
• Vague concepts could be "arbitrarily used to label or restrict legitimate and protected political speech"
• The regulatory body described as "non-independent" and "politically controlled"

Content Restriction Concerns

The UNESCO review highlighted issues with content restrictions:

• Content restrictions directly imposed on users don't meet legal certainty requirements
• References to defamation, insult, and harassment overlap with existing legislation, creating confusion
• The bill doesn't impose transparency obligations on platforms regarding content moderation
• Prohibitions on false or misleading information are incompatible with international standards

Anonymity and Identity Verification

The analysis raised specific concerns about identity verification requirements:

• "The broad obligations included in the Bill in this area are also incompatible with applicable human rights standards"
• Mandatory identity verification could endanger whistleblowers, activists, and vulnerable populations
• The provision fails to recognize the legitimate role of anonymity in democratic discourse

Implications for Different Stakeholders

The Social Media Bill 2025 will have varying impacts on different groups in Nepali society:

Journalists and Media Professionals

• Potential chilling effect on investigative reporting
• Concerns about source protection and journalistic confidentiality
• Uncertainty about how professional journalism will be distinguished from other content

Activists and Civil Society

• Risks to those working on sensitive issues
• Potential for surveillance and monitoring of advocacy activities
• Concerns about the ability to organize and mobilize online

Ordinary Citizens

• Changes in how people express themselves online
• Potential self-censorship due to fear of penalties
• Questions about privacy and data protection

Businesses and Platforms

• Significant compliance costs and operational changes
• Uncertainty about enforcement and interpretation
• Potential impact on business models and user engagement

Balancing Act: Protection vs. Rights

The Social Media Bill 2025 represents an attempt to balance two important objectives:

1. Protecting citizens from online harms: Including misinformation, hate speech, harassment, and privacy violations
2. Upholding fundamental rights: Particularly freedom of expression and privacy in the digital age

Finding the right balance between these objectives remains one of the greatest challenges in digital governance globally, and Nepal's approach will be closely watched by other countries grappling with similar issues.

Potential Impacts and Future Outlook

The implementation of Nepal's Social Media Bill 2025 will have far-reaching implications for the country's digital ecosystem. This section examines potential impacts across various domains and considers the future outlook for digital regulation in Nepal.

Impact on Social Media Platforms

Operational Changes

Major international platforms will need to make significant adjustments:

• Establishing local presence: Setting up Nepal-based offices or contact points
• Implementing verification systems: Developing identity verification processes suitable for Nepal
• Adapting content moderation: Aligning moderation practices with Nepali requirements
• Enhancing transparency: Improving reporting on content decisions and user data handling

Financial Implications

Platforms will face new costs including:

• License application and renewal fees
• Compliance infrastructure investments
• Local staffing and operational expenses
• Potential penalties for violations

Strategic Considerations

Platforms may need to consider:

• Market viability given increased regulatory burden
• Potential for service limitations or modifications
• Risk assessment of continued operation in Nepal
• Engagement with regulators and stakeholders

Impact on Users and Digital Citizens

Changes in Online Behavior

Users may experience:

• Reduced anonymity: Shift away from anonymous or pseudonymous accounts
• Self-censorship: Increased caution about online expression
• Verification requirements: Need to provide identification to use platforms
• Content limitations: Restrictions on certain types of expression

Access and Inclusion Concerns

The bill may affect:

• Digital divide: Those without official identification may face barriers
• Marginalized groups: Potential disproportionate impact on vulnerable populations
• Rural communities: Differences in access to verification infrastructure
• Economic participation: Impact on those using social media for livelihood

Impact on Business and Economy

Digital Economy Effects

The legislation may influence:

• E-commerce: Changes in how businesses use social media for marketing
• Digital payments: Requirements for banking-based payment systems
• Startup ecosystem: Potential barriers for new platform entrants
• Digital entrepreneurship: Changes in opportunities and risks

Innovation and Investment

Potential effects on:

• Tech investment: Attractiveness of Nepal's digital market
• Innovation climate: Impact on digital creativity and experimentation
• International partnerships: Cross-border digital business relationships
• Talent development: Implications for digital skills and workforce

Future Outlook and Evolution

Implementation Challenges

Several challenges will shape implementation:

• Enforcement capacity: Government agencies' ability to monitor and enforce
• Technical complexity: Keeping pace with rapidly evolving technologies
• Judicial interpretation: How courts will interpret and apply the law
• Public compliance: User adaptation and acceptance of new requirements

Potential Amendments and Evolution

The bill may undergo changes based on:

• Stakeholder feedback: Input from platforms, users, and civil society
• Implementation experience: Lessons learned during initial rollout
• International developments: Alignment with global regulatory trends
• Technological changes: Adaptation to new digital technologies and practices

Regional and Global Context

Nepal's approach will be influenced by:

• Regional trends: Developments in South Asian digital regulation
• Global standards: International norms and best practices
• Bilateral relationships: Engagement with major platform countries
• Multi-stakeholder processes: Participation in international governance forums

Recommendations and Best Practices

Based on the analysis of Nepal's Social Media Bill 2025 and international best practices, this section offers recommendations for various stakeholders to ensure that digital regulation in Nepal balances protection of citizens with respect for fundamental rights.

For Policymakers and Regulators

Refining the Regulatory Framework

1. Clarify Vague Provisions: Address ambiguous language in the bill to provide greater legal certainty and reduce the risk of arbitrary enforcement

2. Establish Independent Oversight: Create an independent regulatory body with clear separation from political control to ensure impartial implementation

3. Implement Tiered Regulation: Adopt a risk-based approach that differentiates between platforms based on size, reach, and potential impact

4. Strengthen Transparency Requirements: Mandate greater transparency from platforms regarding content moderation decisions, algorithmic processes, and data handling practices

5. Protect Legitimate Anonymity: Recognize and protect the right to anonymous expression in legitimate cases, such as whistleblowing and political dissent

Alignment with International Standards

1. Conduct Human Rights Impact Assessment: Systematically review the bill's provisions against international human rights standards

2. Engage with International Experts: Collaborate with organizations like UNESCO and other international bodies to ensure alignment with global best practices

3. Participate in Multi-stakeholder Processes: Engage in international discussions on digital governance to contribute to and learn from global developments

4. Regular Review and Update: Establish mechanisms for periodic review and amendment of the legislation to keep pace with technological and social changes

For Social Media Platforms

Compliance Strategies

1. Early Engagement: Proactively engage with Nepali regulators to understand requirements and contribute to implementation guidelines

2. Localized Approaches: Develop compliance strategies that respect Nepali context while maintaining global standards

3. Invest in Local Capacity: Build local teams with understanding of Nepali language, culture, and regulatory environment

4. Transparent Reporting: Enhance transparency about content moderation, data handling, and compliance efforts

User Protection and Rights

1. Robust Appeal Mechanisms: Implement clear and accessible processes for users to appeal content decisions and account actions

2. Privacy by Design: Incorporate privacy protections into platform design and operations, going beyond minimum legal requirements

3. User Education: Develop resources to help users understand their rights and responsibilities under the new regulation

4. Stakeholder Consultation: Engage with civil society, academics, and user representatives to understand diverse perspectives

For Civil Society and Digital Rights Advocates

Monitoring and Advocacy

1. Document Implementation: Systematically monitor and document how the bill is implemented in practice

2. Legal Support: Establish mechanisms to support users and platforms facing legal challenges under the new regulation

3. Policy Research: Conduct research on the impact of the regulation on digital rights, freedom of expression, and access to information

4. International Solidarity: Connect with global digital rights networks to share experiences and strategies

Public Education and Awareness

1. Digital Literacy Programs: Develop initiatives to help citizens understand their digital rights and responsibilities

2. Know Your Rights Campaigns: Educate users about their rights under the new regulation and how to exercise them

3. Platform Accountability: Monitor and report on platform compliance with human rights standards

4. Alternative Platforms: Support the development of alternative platforms that prioritize user rights and privacy

For Users and Digital Citizens

Understanding and Exercising Rights

1. Stay Informed: Keep up to date with developments in digital regulation and platform policies

2. Understand Privacy Settings: Learn and use privacy controls to protect personal information

3. Practice Responsible Digital Citizenship: Be mindful of the impact of online expression on others

4. Know Your Rights: Understand the rights and protections available under Nepali law and international standards

Safety and Security

1. Protect Personal Information: Be cautious about sharing sensitive information online

2. Use Security Tools: Employ security measures such as two-factor authentication and strong passwords

3. Report Violations: Know how to report harmful content, harassment, or privacy violations

4. Seek Support: Access resources and support when facing online threats or harassment

Conclusion: Navigating Nepal's Digital Future

Nepal's Social Media Bill 2025 represents a significant milestone in the country's digital governance journey. As this comprehensive analysis has shown, the legislation attempts to address legitimate concerns about online harms while establishing a regulatory framework for social media platforms operating in Nepal. However, it also raises important questions about the balance between regulation and fundamental rights, particularly freedom of expression and privacy.

Key Takeaways

1. Comprehensive Regulatory Framework: The bill establishes an extensive licensing and regulatory system for social media platforms, with significant compliance requirements and penalties for violations.

2. Human Rights Concerns: Several provisions, particularly regarding content restrictions, licensing requirements, and identity verification, raise concerns about alignment with international human rights standards.

3. Implementation Challenges: The success of the legislation will depend heavily on implementation capacity, technical expertise, and the ability to adapt to rapidly evolving digital technologies.

4. Stakeholder Impact: The bill will affect various stakeholders differently, from international social media companies to ordinary Nepali citizens, each facing unique challenges and opportunities.

The Path Forward

As Nepal moves forward with implementing the Social Media Bill 2025, several key considerations will shape its impact on the country's digital future:

Balancing Regulation and Rights

Finding the right balance between protecting citizens from online harms and upholding fundamental rights remains the central challenge. This will require:

• Ongoing dialogue between government, platforms, and civil society
• Regular review and amendment of the legislation based on implementation experience
• Commitment to international human rights standards in interpretation and enforcement

Building Capacity and Expertise

Effective implementation will require significant investment in:

• Technical expertise within regulatory agencies
• Judicial understanding of digital technologies and their implications
• Public awareness and digital literacy initiatives
• Research and monitoring capabilities

Regional and Global Engagement

Nepal's approach to digital regulation will be most successful when it:

• Engages with regional partners and international organizations
• Learns from global best practices while adapting to local context
• Contributes to international discussions on digital governance
• Balances national interests with global connectivity and cooperation

Call to Action

As Nepal navigates this critical juncture in its digital development, we call on all stakeholders to engage constructively in shaping a digital future that respects rights while protecting citizens:

• For Policymakers: Commit to regular review of the legislation's implementation and impact, with openness to amendments that better align with international human rights standards.

• For Platforms: Engage proactively with regulators and users to develop compliance approaches that respect both legal requirements and user rights.

• For Civil Society: Continue monitoring implementation, advocating for rights-respecting approaches, and educating the public about digital rights and responsibilities.

• For Citizens: Stay informed about digital rights, practice responsible digital citizenship, and participate in public discussions about the future of digital governance in Nepal.

The Social Media Bill 2025 is not the final word on digital regulation in Nepal but rather the beginning of an ongoing conversation about how to govern digital spaces in ways that serve the public interest while respecting fundamental rights. By working together, all stakeholders can help ensure that Nepal's digital future is one that enables innovation, protects rights, and serves the needs of all Nepali citizens.

---